Condensed tannins fed to dairy goats: effects on digestibility, milk production, blood parameters, methane emission, and energy and nitrogen balances.

Condensed tannins (CT) are plant polyphenols that can affect feed digestibility and are potentially able to reduce enteric methane emissions in ruminants. In this in vivo trial with 8 lactating goats, we investigated the effects of 4 levels of inclusion of a commercial CT extract from quebracho (0, 2, 4, 6% on DM basis; C, Q2, Q4, Q6, respectively). The experimental design was a repeated 4 × 4 Latin square with 28-d periods (24 d of diet adaptation and 4 d of sample collection) using metabolic cages and 4 open circuit respiration chambers. The inclusion of CT in the diets did not affect the dry matter intake (DMI) but caused a linear decrease in diet digestibility, with reductions up to -11% for dry matter (DM), -21% for crude protein (CP), -23% for neutral detergent fiber (aNDFom), and -13% for gross energy, when comparing the Q6 and C diets. However, ruminal total volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentration was not affected by CT, although there were changes in VFA proportions. Milk yield (g/d) was highest for Q4 (3371) and lowest for Q6 (3066). In terms of milk composition, CT induced a linear reduction of fat and CP concentrations. The reduction in CP digestibility resulted in a linear reduction in the milk urea level, up to -37% with Q6. Positively, CT linearly reduced the somatic cells count expressed as linear score. The feed efficiency was linearly decreased by CT inclusion. Furthermore, a shift from urinary to fecal nitrogen excretion was observed with CT. The retained nitrogen was always negative (on average -1.93 g/d). The methane yield (on average 19.2 g CH4/kg DMI) was linearly reduced by CT inclusion, up to -18% with Q6. Regarding the CH4 intensity, CT induced a linear reduction when expressed per kg of milk, but not per kg of fat and protein corrected milk. Moreover, the CH4 production per kg of digestible aNDFom was linearly increased by CT. The metabolizable energy intake (MEI) was not affected by the treatments, but the metabolizability (q = MEI/gross energy intake) was reduced as CT inclusion increased. From the results of the present study, it turned out that CT have a negative impact on feed digestibility and feed use efficiency. Condensed tannins can lower CH4 emissions from ruminants; however, the main mechanism of action is likely the decrease in feed digestibility. Furthermore, CT did not improve the N use efficiency. According to these findings, the positive environmental impacts of CT are only related to the shift from urinary to fecal N excretion.

Gastrointestinal nematode infections in goats: differences between strongyle faecal egg counts and specific antibody responses to Teladorsagia circumcincta in Nera di Verzasca and Alpine goats.

Strongylida are gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) of greatest importance in small ruminants throughout the world. Differences in resistance and resilience to GIN among goat breeds were reported. This study aims to investigate the mechanism underlying the breed-associated differences using a cosmopolitan (Alpine, AB) and an autochthonous (Nera di Verzasca, NV) goat breed. At first, fifteen goats from the same herd (NV = 7, AB = 8) at day 0 were infected with infective larvae (L3) of mixed GIN. From the 15th day post-infection (DPI), individual parasite egg excretion (faecal egg counts, FEC) was performed on all goats, once per week, until the 63rd DPI. Afterwards, in goats under field conditions (30 AB and 30 NV reared on the same farm), individual faecal and blood samples were collected; FEC-specific antibody and PCV levels were explored. In goats with experimental GIN infection, mean eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) values were consistently lower in NV goats. In goats with natural GIN infection, EPG and prevalence values showed high variability in both breeds; among individual variables, breed had a significant influence on EPG. Further, PCV and anti-T. circumcincta IgA levels were influenced by the breed. Lower PCV values were also associated with higher strongyle EPG in AB goats, and anti-T. circumcincta IgA levels were influenced by both strongyle EPG and breed, with IgA levels being higher in AB vs. NV goats and positively associated with EPG. Neither EPG nor breed had any influence on IgE levels. Both studies on experimental and natural infection confirmed that goats of NV are more resistant to infection with gastrointestinal nematodes.

Ixodid ticks on wild donkeys in a Mediterranean nature reserve (Asinara National Park): diversity and risk factors.

The Sardinian coloured donkey Equus asinus (Perissodactyla: Equidae) and its albino colour morph represent the wildlife species most typical of the island of Asinara. This Mediterranean island represents a favourable context for ticks and tick-borne diseases; however, knowledge of the tick fauna on Asinara is scarce. A total of 106 Sardinian donkeys were inspected for tick infestation from June to November 2015. All ticks found were collected, classified by stage and sex, and identified to species level. The level of infestation of each donkey was determined; both the overall tick infestation and infestations of each detected species were classified on a scale of 1-3 to give an infestation score (IS). Overall, 256 hard ticks were collected from 60 of 106 donkeys (56.6%). Rhipicephalus bursa, Haemaphysalis punctata and Hyalomma marginatum (all: Ixodida: Ixodidae) infested 26.4%, 28.3% and 6.6% of donkeys, respectively. Different variables affected the IS. With reference to overall tick infestation, a higher IS was observed in donkeys grazing on grassland and Mediterranean shrubland and in albino donkeys compared with coloured donkeys. The collected ticks included species involved in the transmission of pathogens to humans, which highlights the risks for public health in a tourist destination such as Asinara National Park.

Toxoplasma gondii Antibodies in Bulk Tank Milk Samples of Caprine Dairy Herds.

A major public health issue, Toxoplasma gondii infection can affect humans mainly via the consumption of animal products from certain species, including small ruminants. Therefore, a regular monitoring of the infection in ovine and caprine populations is advisable for the control of human and animal toxoplasmosis. Antibody detection in individual and bulk tank milk (BTM) may represent a valid alternative to serological analysis, in that its collection is easy and does not affect animal welfare. Many serological tools for milk analysis have already been validated for several parasites, including Apicomplexa. Thus, the aim of the present study was to obtain epidemiological data on T. gondii infection through the detection of antibodies in BTM of dairy goat herds from an important area for caprine dairy production (northern Italy). The performance of a commercial ELISA was first evaluated for analysis of caprine milk samples, using a panel of serum-milk pairs of goats naturally infected by T. gondii. The analysis of BTM confirmed the presence of anti- T. gondii antibodies in 59% of the samples. Toxoplasma gondii antibody positivity was more frequently found in goats reared on farms under extensive (64.9%) or semi-intensive systems (68.7%) in comparison with intensive farms (51.1%). Analysis of milk was a valid alternative to serological tests, being easily applied in large-scale epidemiological surveys and for continuous monitoring of T. gondii infection.

Cross-sectional survey on Tritrichomonas foetus infection in Italian cats.

The feline genotype of Tritrichomonas foetus is a widespread cause of large-bowel diarrhoea in cats. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of the T. foetus infection in cat populations across Italy. Fresh, individual faecal samples were collected from 267 cats, kept in different environments (i.e., private households, breeding structures, municipal catteries and colonies) in three different sites across Italy. The faecal samples were tested by PCR to detect T. foetus. Moreover, the same samples were subjected to a concentration-flotation technique and a commercial direct fluorescent-antibody (DFA) test to detect additional enteric parasites, including Giardia duodenalis. The overall prevalence of T. foetus infection was 5.2%. All the infected cats showed diarrhoea at the time of sampling: 9 out of 14 positive cats were co-infected with G. duodenalis, 1 with Toxocara cati and 3 with Dipylidium caninum. The risk factor analysis showed that not only the breed, but also co-infections with G. duodenalis and Dipylidium caninum were significantly associated with the presence of T. foetus. This study confirms the presence of T. foetus in cats living in Italy, suggesting that this protozoan parasite should always be included in the differential diagnosis of patients referred with large-bowel disease symptoms, especially if they were purebred animals, or affected by other enteric protozoa, such as G. duodenalis.

Elaphostrongylus cervi in a population of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and evidence of cerebrospinal nematodiasis in small ruminants in the province of Varese, Italy.

Thirty-one faecal samples were collected from red deer in the northern area of Varese, in the Italian region of Lombardy, between August and October 2008. The animals had either been hunted or accidently killed. Examination for internal parasites showed a prevalence of 45.2% for Elaphostrongylus cervi larvae and species identification was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Ninety-seven faecal samples were also collected from two goat flocks grazing in the same area between December 2007 and May 2008. These showed a prevalence of 74.7% for lungworms. Furthermore, the central nervous systems from five goats and one sheep from this area with a history of neurologically related lameness were examined. Histopathology confirmed E. cervi cerebro-spinal nematodiasis in five cases out of six. This study demonstrates E. cervi transmission from wild to domestic ruminants when the animals graze in the same area, and the possible occurrence of clinical disease in infected goats and sheep associated with high prevalence in deer.

Cystic echinococcosis in Europe and in Italy.

Cystic Echinococcosis remains a public health problem especially in the Mediterranean Region and the economic impact of Echinococcosis is great despite efforts to control it. In this review, an attempt is made to assess the present epidemiological situation of Echinococcosis in Europe and Italy.

Multi-locus microsatellite analysis supports the hypothesis of an autochthonous focus of Echinococcus multilocularis in northern Italy.

Echinococcus multilocularis is characterised by a wide geographical distribution, encompassing three continents (North America, Asia and Europe) yet very low genetic variability is documented. Recently, this parasite has been detected in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) circulating in an Alpine region of Italy, close to Austria. This finding raised the question as to whether an autochthonous cycle exists in Italy or whether the infected foxes originated from the neighbouring regions of Austria. Studies have shown that multi-locus microsatellite analysis can identify genomic regions carrying mutations that result in a local adaptation. We used a tandem repeated multi-locus microsatellite (EmsB) to evaluate the genetic differences amongst adult worms of E. multilocularis collected in Italy, worms from neighbouring Austria and from other European and extra-European countries. Fluorescent PCR was performed on a panel of E. multilocularis samples to assess intra-specific polymorphism. The analysis revealed four closed genotypes for Italian samples of E. multilocularis which were unique compared with the other 25 genotypes from Europe and the five genotypes from Alaska. An analysis in the Alpine watershed, comparing Italian adult worms with those from neighbouring areas in Austria, showed a unique cluster for Italian samples. This result supports the hypothesis of the presence of an autochthonous cycle of E. multilocularis in Italy. EmsB can be useful for 'tracking' the source of infection of this zoonotic parasite and developing appropriate measures for preventing or reducing the risk of human alveolar echinococcosis.

Abomasal nematodes of the red deer Cervus elaphus in north-eastern Italy.

The composition of the abomasal helminth fauna and parasite diversity were studied in 298 red deer collected during 1997-2000 from three different sectors (Bolzano, Trento and Sondrio provinces) of the Stelvio National Park, one of the main protected areas of north-eastern Italy. The association between parasite burdens and geographical areas of the hosts was assessed using the negative binomial regression. A variety of abomasal helminths, both host specific and generalist, was found in all sectors. The most commonly observed parasites were the Spiculopteragia spiculoptera morph spiculoptera and Ostertagia leptospicularis morph leptospicularis, with prevalences of 79.5% and 40.9%, respectively. The minor morphs S. spiculoptera morph mathevossiani (prevalence 31.9%) and O. leptospicularis morph kolchida (18.8%) occurred at lower prevalences. Teladorsagia circumcincta morph circumcincta, Marshallagia marshalli morph marshalli and Haemonchus contortus were rarer, at prevalences of 1, 1.3 and 1.3%, respectively. Deviance analysis of the negative binomial regression model shows that the geographical area is significantly related to parasite burdens (P = 0.001). Prevalences of hosts with parasites were greater in the Sondrio (odds ratio = 1.31; 95% confidence interval: 0.16-10.85) and smaller in the Trento (odds ratio = 0.62; 95% confidence interval: 0.20-1.96) sectors with respect to Bolzano, but these differences were not statistically significant. Possible cross-infections by more generalist parasites between wild and domestic animals were also suggested, as deer and domestic ruminants (Bovinae, Caprinae and Ovinae) used the same feeding areas of the park sectors.

[Gastrointestinal parasites in goat farms from Bergamo province (Lombardy, north Italy)]. / Parassitismo gastrointestinale in allevamenti caprini della provincia di Bergamo (Lombardia).

A survey on gastrointestinal parasites in goat farms in Bergamo province was carried out from May 2005 to January 2006. Thirty-one dairy goat farms and 836 adult female goats were examined. Faecal sampling was carried out before the antihelminthic treatments, and the sampling times were grouped in three seasonal periods (June-August, September-October and November-March). Faecal exams were carried out by a McMaster method and eggs per gram (EPG) were calculated for each gastrointestinal parasite. Differences in prevalence of Strongylida, Trichuris and Nematodirus were found between farms with goats on pasture and those where animals were permanently housed indoor. Strongyloides spp. showed higher values of prevalence in goats housed indoor. With regard to the sampling seasons, Strongylida eggs were more prevalent in summer while Nematodirus in winter in goats at pasture. Strongyloides occurred more frequently in autumn in stabled goats.

[Biology of gastrointestinal nematodes of ruminants]. / Biologia dei nematodi gastrointestinali dei ruminanti.

The development and survival of free-living stages of gastro-intestinal nematodes of small ruminants are influenced by several abiotic and biotic factors. Within the abiotic factors, most important are the environmental temperature and humidity. They regulate the development of larvae from eggs dispersed on the pasture by the animals faeces. Each parasite species that infect ruminants requires a different time to development, depending on temperature and humidity. Among trichostrongylids, Ostertagia, Teladorsagia and Nematodirus show a strong adaptation to low temperatures. Nematodirus larvae are able to survive to winter inside the egg shell. Temperature and humidity influence the distribution and survival of larvae on pasture. The larval third stage can migrate from faeces to pasture vegetation and they accumulate at the basis of vegetation where stay during the day or in the soil to avoid the desiccation. The forage species affects the migration of larvae on herbage too. Many biological factors contribute to disperse the larvae on the pasture. Dung burying beetles, coprophagous beetles and earthworms can greatly reduce the larvae of some trichostrongylids on pasture. They contribute to the spread of the faecal material on the pasture and allow the larval death as a consequence of drying.

[Cysticercus tenuicollis infection in a goat farm]. / Infestazione da Cysticercus tenuicollis in un allevamento di capre.

An outbreak of acute cysticercosis occurred in six female goats 2-4 years old and three 50 days old kids from a goat farm in northern Italy. Goats were usually recovered in stable with an outdoor paddock. Post-mortem examination showed a massive infection of Taenia hydatigena larvae in the liver, lungs and on the peritoneum. All recovered Cysticercus tenuicollis were at immature stage.

[Case report of Elaphostrongylus cervi in a goat in north Italy]. / Segnalazione di Elaphostrongylus cervi in una capra in nord-Italia.

A case of cerebral nematodiasis in a goat from Lombardy (north Italy) is described. Clinical signs, histopathological lesions and the finding of a nematode in cerebral tissue sections of the affected animal confirmed the diagnosis of infection with Elaphostrongylus cervi.

Echinococcus multilocularis in north Italy.

Alveolar echinococcosis is a zoonotic infection caused by the metacestode of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis. Fox populations living in the Alpine regions of Italy had been considered free from this parasite until 2002, when two infected foxes were detected in Bolzano province (Trentino Alto Adige region) near Austrian border. A modified nested PCR analysis was used to detect E. multilocularis DNA in faecal samples belonging to red fox populations from five Italian regions. A total of 522 faecal samples were analysed from foxes shot in Valle d'Aosta (N = 65), Liguria (N = 44), Lombardy (N = 105), Veneto (N = 67), and Trentino Alto Adige (N = 241) regions. Among these, 24 samples, all from the Trentino Alto Adige region, were found positive. Moreoever, 1406 faecal samples of red foxes were analyzed by CA-ELISAs commercial test kit. This paper provides an update of the epidemiological knowledge of this parasite in north Italy.

Echinococcus multilocularis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) of the Italian Alpine region: is there a focus of autochthonous transmission?

Alveolar echinococcosis, caused by the metacestode of Echinococcus multilocularis, is a zoonosis with a wider distribution area than described in the past. Fox populations living in the Alpine regions of Italy had been considered free from this parasite until 2002, when two infected foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were detected in the Bolzano province (Trentino Alto Adige region) near the Austrian border. The aim of this work was to evaluate the prevalence of infection in red fox populations from five Italian regions. A modified nested PCR analysis was used to detect E. multilocularis DNA in faecal samples. Amplicons were confirmed by sequencing. Of 500 faecal samples from foxes shot in Valle d'Aosta (n=57), Liguria (n=44), Lombardy (n=102), Veneto (n=56), and Trentino Alto Adige (n=241) regions, 24 animals, all from the Trentino Alto Adige region, were found positive. Twenty-two positive animals originated from the Bolzano province and two positive animals from the Trento province. Several localities of the Bolzano province, in which positive foxes were detected, are the same as those where alveolar echinococcosis had been described in humans in the second half of the 19th century, suggesting an old endemicity for the investigated area, which is adjacent to endemic areas of Austria. Therefore, the question arises if we are observing an increase and expansion of foci, or if the new records are due to the more sensitive and specific methods used to detect the worm DNA.

[Animal echinococcosis in Italy: epidemiological update]. / Aggiornamenti epidemiologici sull'echinococcosi animale in Italia.

Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) is one of the most widespread parasitoses in the Mediterranean Region (MR). This is due to various factors, the most important being the close association between man, sheep and dogs in areas where open farming is practised. Although this disease has been known for several years and many studies have been carried out, nowadays in Italy there are no complete epidemiological data on its diffusion and distribution. The available data show that CE is mainly diffused in those districts where the sheep-dog cycle can be perpetuated, such as central and southern Italy, and the islands. Furthermore, no data are available on biomolecular characterisation of the strains of Echinococcus granulosus in Italy, apart form those in Sardinia, where the G1 (sheep-dog) and G7 (pig-dog) strains were recently isolated. One of the reasons why CE is a problem with no easy solution is undoubtedly the difficulty of making a certain diagnosis in the dog, the principal definitive host of E. granulosus.